Evaluating Historical Views of Leadership Essay

How does a civilization attain the most effective leadership? More importantly what is considered effective leadership and who developed the theories surrounding it? These questions are debated through the ages of postmodern and modern civilization. Bass (1974) wrote that, â€Å"from its infancy, the study of history has been the study of leaders† (Wren, 1995, p. 50). Four of the godfathers of what is considered modern leadership theory are Plato, Aristotle, Lao-Tzu and Machiavelli. Over the course of this analysis, the leadership theories of each of these titans will be evaluated. Each view contains commonalities and disparities which offer conflicting perspectives on the complex topic of leadership throughout the ages of modern society. The goal is to broaden these views with critical evaluation, vetted scholarly sources and well-reasoned judgments. The conclusion arrived at will offer heighten awareness at the age old highly debated question; what is effective leadership? Plato vs Aristotle Plato and Aristotle were both titans of Greek thought during the fourth century BCE Athens, and both shared similar experience and backgrounds. Partly this was because Plato was Aristotle’s teacher. Takala the author of Plato on Leadership states â€Å"Ancient Greece (400 B.C.) has been regarded as the home of systematic administrative thinking; it has been seen as the place where the Western administrative thinking was born† (Takala, 1998, p. 787). This fact cemented Plato’s title of godfather of modern leadership theory that presented a systematic political and administrative model linking what life could be in an ideal state (Takala, 1998). There are many parallels in Plato’s rhetoric that mirror contemporary leadership debate. The most glaring is the emphasis on education and a class based system that focuses on what he termed, just social order. A† just social order† is defined as â€Å"one where order and harmony are maintained by each class of citizens carrying out the tasks for which they are suited and not interfering with the work of others† (Takala, 1998, p. 791). Plato in his most famous work the Republic speaks to the importance of virtue derived from knowledge. His top three credos for a unified and virtuous state were: 1. Know the good is to do the good. 2. All the virtues boil down gaining wisdom or what he paraphrased the †unity of the virtues† (Takala, 1998). 3. In order to become happy in a new state virtue must be present. The second titan of the three discussed is Plato’s protà ©gà © the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. Aristotle had many views that mirrored the views of his mentor the most glaring being the dependence on education for laying the foundation for a modernized society (Kodish, 2006). Where these two minds disagree comes down to the action needed to secure leadership. Aristotle poked holes in all of the three points above given by Plato is these fundamental ways: 1. Just knowing the good was not enough for Aristotle. The concept of free will was relatively new, and he failed to see the need to practice being virtue. 2. For this reason, although wisdom is the highest form of virtue, it is by no means the key to possessing all virtues. In other words, Aristotle denies the unity of the virtues. 3. Finally, Aristotle thinks that although virtue is necessary to the good life, it isn’t sufficient. That is to say a person can be virtuous but still be unhappy. In particular, does a person truly need good fellow citizens to achieve happiness (Kodish, 2006). The most general difference Aristotle and Plato held was a difference of values surrounding the human condition. Aristotle saw the positives in society, and therefore prescribed freedom and equality; Plato saw the negatives and prescribed various illiberal and discriminatory ideals (Wren, 1995). Lao-Tzu vs Machiavelli The third titan of thought was Lao-tzu â€Å"an ancient sage of the sixth century and his book the Tao Te Ching (how things work) was used by political leaders† of his time in history (Wren, 1995, p. 69). The forth titan in Nicollo Machiavelli and his work the Prince is a classic on the pragmatic  use of power in society (Wren, 1995). Aristotle and Plato represent the western view of leadership during the age of modern leadership theory. To further broaden our view of leadership theory and practice this analysis also explores eastern views through the eyes of two more of history’s most influential minds. Lao-tzu’s theory is fundamentally different mainly due to its message of simplicity. He believed that a truly effective leader should be loved by the people he/she lead (Gerald, 2005). Compared to other scholars of the time like Machiavelli who felt fearing a leader was the best way to get results (Wren, 1995). In Machiavelli’s own words he wrote â€Å"I reply that one should like to be both one and the other, but since it is difficult to join them together, it is much safer to be feared than loved when one of the two must be lacking† (Machiavelli, 2006, p. 44). The differences between these two influential minds stem from the trusting (Lao-Tzu) or not trusting (Machiavelli) your followers to make good choices. The Tao Te Ching attempts to foster leadership by stepping away from the era-specific tyrannical view of what motivates the human condition. The 46th chapter of Tao Te Ching bares these words: â€Å"There is no greater misfortune than wanting more.† If you are content, Lao Tzu continues, â€Å"you will always have enough.† Unfortunately for Westerners, our motto seems to be â€Å"more for me now† (Gerald, 2005, p. 48). Conclusion Throughout the above analysis, there have been commonalities and disparities presented from the classic works of four godfathers of modern leadership theory and practice. Each mind brings a modified view of what leadership should or could be in a modern society. Whatever personal views arise after reviewing these masterworks there are some truths furthering the argument that leadership theory is an ever evolving door and a melting pot of ideas derived from many figures throughout history. The only constant is that there is no ideal way to lead; there are only methods that have garnered results in their own time and place in history. References Gerald, W. P. (2005, April 9). A look at thoughts from Tao-Te-Ching. Kingston Whig, 1-48. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/352713307?accountid=458 Kodish, S. (2006). The Paradoxes of Leadership: The Contribution of Aristotle. Leadership, 2: 451, 451-458. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1742715006069175 Machiavelli, N. (2006). Qualities of the Prince. New York Bedford/St Martin: in World of Ideas. Takala, T. (1998, May). Plato on Leadership. Journal of Business Ethics, 17, 785-798. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25073123 Wren, T. J. (1995). The Leader’s Companion Insights on Leadership Through the Ages. New York NY: The Free Press.

Baldwin Norman

The profundity of silence is a theme that plays a significant role in the works â€Å"Sonny’s Blues† by James Baldwin and â€Å" ’night, Mother† by Marsha Norman. The two tales represent confessions by family members that uncover the profound effect that each person’s communication method has had on the other. In particular, one identifies a lack of communication within both family relationships that demonstrates itself in an overabundance of silence.Baldwin’s tale recounts the woes of a certain brother who feels himself somehow responsible for the tragic events that have faced his younger sibling, and it portrays a relationship that lacks effective communication. Likewise, Norman portrays a family that has spent its usefulness in the avoidance of conversation. She eventually reveals the inadequacies of the mother who is at last unable to rescue her child from the pressures that cause her to contemplate death as the only acceptable option.The protagonists of each story find themselves in family relationships that fall short of the support necessary to prevent each from receding beyond the point of recovery. The tale rehashed in Marsha Norman’s play â€Å" ‘night, Mother† explores the hopelessness that leads to suicide, and in so doing, closely maps the psychological condition of the character Jessie (Whited 65). It takes the analysis of the situation into the realm of the family and considers that cocoon to be the engine that generates and exacerbates the problem Jessie faces. The â€Å"problem† is given its lineage in the relationships experienced by the members of the family.The relationships appear to be filled with action and devoid of communication. Of her own culpability, Mama says, â€Å"I didn’t tell you things or I married you off to the wrong man or I took you in and let your life get away from you or all of it put together† (lines 611-613). This circumstance points tow ard an overemphasizing of action and the downplaying of the type of conversation that allows true feelings to come to the fore. Jessie also recalls the silence of her father, and Norman hints that this silence has for the past decades stabilized or subdued the appearance of Jessie’s mental condition.Yet, this same silence has perhaps created the environment in which her mental or psychological illness has been allowed to germinate (Whited, 67). The idea that Jessie breaks her silence precisely at that hour in which her mental condition has become overwhelming and irreparable gives the idea that the lack of communication within her family setting may actually have been to her detriment. The exploration of the relationship between the narrator and his brother Sonny in James Baldwin’s â€Å"Sonny’s Blues† also represents a crisis of silence and suffocation within a family setting.This family in which Sonny resides also betrays a tendency toward continual act ion that precludes the kind of conversation which might have allowed the brothers to truly understand each other. Without understanding Sonny, the narrator (his brother) and their mother make plans to protect him for the rest of his life. They encourage him to live in situations that are not conducive to his spirited nature, such as his residence with Isabel while his brother goes off to war. Yet the silence Sonny endures, like that of Jessie, has the appearance of being his preferred mode of existence.The narrator says, â€Å"Sonny has never been talkative,† yet he goes on to say something more insightful that hints at the true desires that Sonny has always had. He continues, â€Å"So I don’t know why I was sure he’d be dying to talk to me when supper was over the first night† (Baldwin, 8). This hints at the underlying idea that though silence prevailed within the family, probing by his brother and mother might have dispelled both the silence and the dis mal circumstances that later defined Sonny’s life.Literary analyst Tracey Sherard writes: â€Å"the narrator comes to understand his brother Sonny through the latter’s apparent struggle to strike out into the deep, unexplored waters of jazz improvisation† (691). Therefore, it is only through the music that Sonny’s brother is able to communicate with and understand him in the end. Comparisons between the two tragic characters of the stories, Sonny and Jessie, can be made in regard to their life choices. The two characters can be seen to choose silence during the early years of their lives, and this might be connected to another form of silence throughout the later stages of their lives.Sonny’s choice of life has led him to heroin, and this dangerous drug might be considered one that paves a path to death in a manner that is very similar to the suicide that Jessie contemplates. Both characters, therefore, choose suicide as the only means of silencing the worries and discontent of their lives. Jessie expresses a desire to sleep â€Å"whenever she wanted to, just by closing her eyes† (line 637), and this she has not been able to do since she was a â€Å"pink and fat† baby (639-40). This choice to commit suicide is therefore an extension of the idea of closing one’s eyes to problems of life.Sonny, in a similar way, chooses to close his eyes to his problems via his use of heroin. And likewise, the extension of this action (continued heroin use) is precisely concurrent with the death that Jessie so openly craves. Jessie’s mother, who desires not death, says â€Å"I’m not like you, Jessie. I hate the quiet and I don’t want to die† (lines 626-27) and this juxtaposition of death and quietness underscores the idea that the death desired by Jessie and Sonny can be seen also to be a form of silence.The motif of silence can be carried through even further within the analysis of the stories t old by these authors. During the few short moments before her death, Jessie takes a break from her silence to explain the essence of it to her mother. Within this time she uncovers all the pain that her silence has embodied for the years preceding (Whited, 67). She also enumerates the problems that her ensuing death will hope to silence within her. This moment of conversation can be compared to (and in fact prefigures) the bullet that breaks for a split second the silence that has defined Jessie’s life.It also effects the reconstruction of that silence by guaranteeing its continuation in death. Death guarantees not only that the disappointments and fears in Jessie’s psyche will be quieted, but also that the events that have generated or exacerbated these problems will also cease to trouble her. The forms of silence to which Sonny subscribes are heroin (as has been uncovered above) and music. While heroin promises to lead him toward that final and inexorable death of th e body, music provides a spiritual release for him that also provides an effective (if temporary) silence from his turmoil.Sonny’s escape to music as a means of silencing his demons can be compared to the way his brother describes their father as being â€Å"on the lookout for ‘something a little better. ’† Yet he goes on to say that his father â€Å"died before he found it† (Baldwin, 8). Sonny, too, looks to music as a form of escape—a means of quieting his dissatisfaction with his circumstances, a way of searching for something better. While as a youth he annoyed Isabel’s family with his constant piano playing, everyone was able to sense that â€Å"Sonny was at that piano playing for his life† (16).The piano’s music silenced not only the troubles that haunted his mind, but also the voices of hoodlums and vagrants on the street that would have called him into a life of crime and dissipation. It was, in fact, the eventual silencing of the piano by the screams of Isabel’s family that precipitated the demise that his music had been holding at bay. This re-establishes and supports the idea that music was a means of silencing the call of the inner city life and pressures that threatened to overtake Sonny in his youth.The lives and relationships explored within â€Å"’Night, Mother† and â€Å"Sonny’s Blues,† as told by Marsha Norman and James Baldwin respectively, speak loudly and portray vividly a distinct and almost impenetrable silence that enveloped the main characters. For Jessie, silence has been the defining characteristic of her relationship between her father during both his life and his death. During his life, he demonstrated his love with actions, and while Jessie appeared to be comfortable in that silence, the very essence of it provided the environment in which her psychological demise germinated and matured.Her mother, though disliking silence, has rarely been able penetrate Jessie’s, and this proves to facilitate the more permanent form of silence to which she graduates: that of death. Sonny too experiences silence within his relationships—a silence that becomes extended and embodies by the activities of his life. He refuses to speak to his family, silencing the discomfiture with music or heroin. Like Jessie, Sonny’s major life decisions place him on a path toward the ultimate silence: death. Works Cited Baldwin, James. â€Å"Sonny’s Blues. † Wright State University.1957. Online Text. http://www. wright. edu/~alex. macleod/winter06/blues. pdf Norman, Marsha. â€Å"’Night, Mother. † Literature: Reading, Writing, Reacting. Laurie G. Kirzner & Stephen Mandell (Eds). 4th Ed. New York: Harcourt College Publishers, 2001. 1708-1743. Sherard, Tracey. â€Å"Sonny’s Bebop: Baldwin’s ‘Blues Text’ as Intracultural Critique. † African American Review. Vol. 32, Iss ue 4. (Winter 1998): 691-705. Whited, Lana A. â€Å"Suicide in Beth Henley's Crimes of the Heart and Marsha Norman's ‘night, Mother. † Southern Quarterly 36 (Fall 1997): 65-74.

The Common Thought People Have Concerning Child Abuse

The common thought people have concerning child abuse is what exactly child abuse is. Child abuse is described to be â€Å"when a parent or caregiver, whether through action or failing to act, causes injury, death, emotional harm or risk of serious harm to a child.† (Childhelp). Child abuse is when a parent/guardian/caregiver causes physical damage, emotional damage, or psychological damage to a child. In the state of North Carolina, there are several sections from state legislation laws in which determines and labels what child abuse is. These sections include â€Å"inflicts or allows to be inflicted upon the juvenile a serious physical injury by other than accidental means†, â€Å"creates or allows to be created a substantial risk of serious physical injury to the juvenile by other than accidental means†, and â€Å"creates or allows to be created serious emotional damage to the juvenile; serious emotional damage is evidenced by a juvenile s severe anxiety, dep ression, withdrawal, or aggressive behavior toward himself or others.† (North Carolina General Assembly). But with these descriptions and labels, it is always best for people to understand child abuse in more depth. Physical abuse is the most common type of child abuse in which the parent/guardian causes or allows harm to a child through an injury in which was not accidental. â€Å" 28.3% of adults report being physically abused as a child.† (Childhelp). 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You Can Not Go Through Life Without Having A List Of Rules

You can not go through life without having a list of rules. I hope to grow up and become a parent myself and one thing that I hope to teach my children one day is that they need to work their hardest until they succeed and that they need to learn from their failures. One quote that I really like is from Thomas Edison who said, â€Å"I have not failed, I have just found 10,000 ways not to build a lightbulb.† What I take from this quote is that life doesn’t end after you fail, you need to take that failure and expound on it and learn from it. I live by a lot of rules, I believe obeying rules is hard work but if I obey them I will get a lot of things in return and that’s what I hope my kids take away from life and my rules, is that if you do something hard you’ll get something great in return. In my freshman year I was nominated to be the team captain of my baseball team and that night I was really nervous because I didn’t think I was the right person for the job because I am a quiet kid and I just go to baseball to do two things, win and get better. I also get angry at people when they mess up but I do usually keep it to myself. I was also really nervous when I was up to hit because I didn t want to get hit by the ball. So I didn’t really know how to be a team leader. That night I was sitting around table eating dinner when I started talking about what I should do. My dad gave me this tip that when I’m up to bat say to myself, I can hit the ball, I can hit the ball. This gaveShow MoreRelatedThere Are Different Levels Of Fame1360 Words   |  6 Pagesdifferent levels of fame: Total Fame. Here you are famous on a wide scale and your name is on the world platform. Most people aspire for total fame but only the most talented and most lucky people achieve it. 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Existentialism, Nihilism, And Objectivism - 2408 Words

From the beginning of time people have pondered existence and what it means to truly â€Å"Be’, indeed the most important questions that one can ask are those of a metaphysical nature. The deeper questions that seek to explain the reason we’re here in the first place, if for any reason at all. It’s easy to get lost in the many differing theories proposed from Determinism to Rationalism to Solipsism to Absurdism the possible theories one can ascribe as correct are endless. But the ones that try to answer those big questions in the most general of terms are the ones that seem to hold the most verisimilitude. Existentialism, Nihilism, and Objectivism are the most general, and although quite different they are also quite similar. But existentialism seems to be the one which offers the most hope for optimism or any concern for altruism and personal growth. To begin with it should be taken into consideration the circumstances in which humanity found itself in when these sort philosophical musings of ontology became so prevalent among the society of thinkers and intellectuals. With the turbulence and constant change of the late 19th and 20th century it only makes sense that people would begin to wonder what it all really means. With wars, genocide, and poverty contrasted against the unprecedented industrial and technological advances of the time not to mention the exponential growth in some populations, it became easier and easier to lose one s identity as the world begins toShow MoreRelated Comparing the Anti-Social Plays of Cyrano de Bergerac and Night of the Iguana1026 Words   |  5 Pagesunderstood by scientific and logical means. This, I believe, is where the anti-social play becomes important: it reflects societys belief that there is nothing to believe in anymore. The emergence of many philosophies (such as existentialism, athei stic satanism, objectivism, nihilism, and hedonism) which focus on despair or selfishness also reflects this. Anti-social plays, of which we have many in modern times, address the concepts of despair that these influential modern philosophies have in common.Read MoreExistentialism vs Essentialism23287 Words   |  94 PagesEssentialism vs. Existentialism Essentialism: A belief that things have a set of characteristics that make them what they are, amp; that the task of science and philosophy is their discovery amp; expression; the doctrine that essence is prior to existence While, Existentialism:A philosophical theory or approach, that emphasizes the existence of the individual person as a free amp; responsible agent, determining their own development through acts of the will. Existentialism * is

Michael Jordan Essay Paper Example For Students

Michael Jordan Essay Paper Michael Jordan is an American Professional Basketball Player . I picked Michael for my biography because I consider him to be the best basketball player in the NBA . Michael is recognized for his spectacular ball handling skills and for his outrageous dunks . He is also the leading scorer in the NBA , and a winner of three NBA most valuable player award in 1988,1991, and 1992 . Jordan was born in Brooklyn , New York , and raised in Wilmington , North Carolina . He accepted a basketball scholarship at the University of North Carolina and as a freshman he scored the winning shot in the 1982 NCAA championship game . In 1984 Jordan led theU.S. basketballteam to victory in the Olympics . After that he left college to play for the Chicago Bulls . Jordan was successful as a professional from his firstseason , Leading the NBA in the 1984-85 season in points scored . He also was named rookie ofthe year and started in the All Star game . In the 1986-87 season Jordan became the second player ever to score 3000 points in one season . In the following six seasons he led the NBA in scoring averaging more than 30 points per game . Jordan led the Chicago Bulls to their first NBA championship tittle in 1991, and did it again in 1992 and in 1993 . Jordan retired frombasketball in 1994 to play baseball . He only played for about one year but he didnt have what it took to be abaseball player . He came back to play basketball in the middle of the 1995 season to lead the Bulls into the first round of the playoffs where they where beat . Jordan was the NBAs most valuable player for the 1987-88season and again for the 1990-91 and the 1991-92 season . This is the firsttime a NBA player won for two consecutive seasons . He was also a member of the Dream Team that won the gold metal in basketball at the 1992 Summer Olympics . Many people consider Michael to be the best basketball player in the world . I consider him to be the best on earth . Also one of the mostworld renown players ever to be recognized all over the world . Jordan has signedmany profitable contracts to endorse commercialproducts such as Nike , Pepsi ,Gatorade , and many more .

To what extent did the Cold War shaped the US relations with Latin America

Table of Contents A case study of Central American in 1980s The US and Nicaragua The US and El Salvador The US and Guatemala Summary Conclusion Reference A case study of Central American in 1980s After the Second World War the relationship between the US and Soviet Union was changed from anti Nazi partners to latent enemies. But because of the nuclear threats from both sides, the possibility of a real battle became very small and a new form of cold war known as the competition between military, economies, politics, diplomacy, ideology and so on started.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on To what extent did the Cold War shaped the US relations with Latin America? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More During the cold war both sides were trying to gain more international influence and power, so foreign policy became especially important. In term of the US and Latin America relation had changed a lot because of it. This essay is going to talk detailed about those changes and focus on countries like EI Salvadorï ¼Å'Nicaragua and Guatemala . During the Second World War the partnership relation between US and Latin American was very good and strong. For example, in the first two years of the war most Latin America countries were neutral as US, after US joining the war they stopped diplomacy with those fascism countries and claimed war against them Mexico and Brazil even sent troops to fight with US. Other Latin American countries also had done a lot to provide many material supports to US (Zhu 2002 p19). After the war although US did a lot to deepen its influence in economic, political and military terms but because its interventions anti US sense was popular in those Latin American people. In 1959, the Cuba victory pushed this sense to a very high level and rang the alarm to US. In 1960, US have changed a lot of its attitude to Latin America. The reasons are on one hand, the great fear to the Soviet Union catch up and expansion, on the other hand the fear of Cuba bring communism domino effect to the Latin America countries and finally surrounded by the red empire (Priestland 2010 p48). From 1960, US launched a lot of actions to suppress communism and gain its power in Latin America. Firstly, the long term actions toward Cuba to intervene and subvert the communism government. One thing should notice is it was not an independent movement but a collective one, countries like Dominica and Guatemala also involved. (Priestland 2010 p48). The relationships between the US and Latin American countries divided into clear branches. Secondly, ideology competition with communism accompanied with military actions. This movement was trying to reconcile the relationship through ideology penetration and economic aid and at the same time defeat the communism ideologically and physically. (Zhu 2002 p26) But outcomes are not all good as predicted because these ideologies also raised disputes betw een the US and authoritarian regimes in Latin America.Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Thirdly, mainly after the 1980s besides dollar diplomacy to Latin American, the US gave more concentration to Central America and Caribbean area as their most urgent task and changed their military and political strategy to a low intensity one. Nicaragua and EI Salvador can be good examples to understand the policy. (Priestland 2010 p51) Nicaragua is quite different from other communism country, the reform of the Sandinistas was relatively soft and did not rose much class conflicts maybe partly because the avaricious Somoza regime that only the Somoza family owned 20% of the country’s cultivable land. (Skidmore Smith 2005 p386)And also the Sandinistas’ different attitudes to capitalist countries relatively friendly and their nonaligned foreign policy make sure at the ver y beginning of 1980 its relationship with US was not bad, it was still able to get financial help from US (Priestland 2010 p51). But the implement of the Reagan doctrine changed the situation. US started to sanction Nicaragua economically and politically and fostering any anti Sandinista force to subvert the communism government (Skidmore and Smith 2005 p387-388). The action was brutal almost 1% of the population died in the contra war. Combine with many other factor it finally lead the Sandinista lost the election to weak but pro US candidate (Priestland 2010 p60). In the EI Salvador case, even under very much domestic pressure, US had not stopped its military intervention. Unit any possible force within Latin American, gave economic aid and sent military advisor to support anti communism regime. (Nigel 1990 p103) Many criticisms had put Vietnam label on this time. This led to 12 years civil war responsible for more than 75,000 deaths (Skidmore and Smith 2010 p388). But the US atti tudes changed from purge to negotiation. Partly because the reform nature and the popularity among people of the FMLN or partly the weakening soviet power, two conflict regime under supervision of US finally ceased fire and lead the EI Salvador to a direction to democracy (Nigel 1990 p105). But the American influence seemed hard to get rid of, even in 2004 when the election seems to be a victory of FMLN, American warned right wing with possibility of economic and political sanctions (Skidmore Smith2010 p385). After persuading the Latin American countries with conciliatory policies before the World War II, Roosevelt’s administration had hoped to rally the Latin American countries to cooperate in defending the region. However, during the World War II and after the war, these nations found international military, political and economic relations with communist countries especially with the Soviet Union. After the World War II, the US had problems containing the spread of commun ism in Latin American countries. The US policymakers attempted to control radicalism of social change as they argued that the US was encouraging the spread of democracy in these countries. It was difficult curbing the spread of communism and sometimes the US was forced to support undemocratic regimes like that of Anastasio Samoza of Nicaragua.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on To what extent did the Cold War shaped the US relations with Latin America? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More If at all the United States wished to record any improvements with regard to the alliance it was enjoying with Latin America, the Kennedy administration deemed it necessary to take on board Nicaragua and President Anastasio in all the ensuing economic development programs. In the 1970s, the Marxist left demonstrated its unwavering support for both Cuba and the Soviet Union, in addition to the desire to create communist regimes in Guat emala, Nicaragua, and El Salvador. This implied that the Soviet Union was expanding power and spreading its communist ideology in America’s backyard. However, there was sharp division in the Reagan’s administration as conservatives wanted the Marxist left to be defeated while liberals feared another Vietnam-like war between the US and; El Salvador and Guatemala and therefore they did not support any military aid to anticommunist governments or rebel forces. The US and Nicaragua The US used the Central Intelligence Agency to achieve most of its ambitions in these countries. In Nicaragua, between 1981 and 1990, particularly in the Reagan’s administration, the CIA carried out several activities to destabilize the government of Nicaragua. They planted mines in harbors mainly those used by the civilians and also sunk civilian ships. They aided and trained the major rebel group in Nicaragua, the Contras Guerilla Insurgency which had its base in Honduras. The Contras i nsurgents waged guerilla war on the government and also carried out serious human rights abuse such as murder, torture, rape, kidnappings, arson among others aimed at destabilizing the government and eventually topple it and taking over power (The Catholic Institute for International Relations 11). They even destroyed social amenities like health care centers and also assassinated the health care workers. According to Leogrande the CIA created the Unilaterally Controlled Latino Assets (UCLAs) group in 1983 to help the US in sabotaging ports, bridges, refineries. This was part of the US deception strategy so that these activities would be perceived to be Contras sabotage activities. (Leogrande 1993 p340) The UCLA was responsible for the mining of the Nicaraguan harbors that saw many Nicaraguan boats sink and several foreign vessels damaged in January 1984 (Gilbert 1988 p167).Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This led to the ratification of the Boland Amendment which barred the provision of arms support to the Contras insurgents (Gilbert 1988 pI67). The amendment criminalized under the US law the supply of arms to any militant group. However, this did not stop the Reagan’s administration from supporting the Contras militants. Instead the hatched the Iran-Contra Plan which enabled them supply the Contras insurgents with arms. The US had initially supported the Sandinista-dominated regime by providing economic assistance. US even helped the regime to take over power from the Samoza regime which was also doctorial. On the other hand, the United States government had to withhold its financial support when the conflict in Salvador came into the light. Moreover, private diplomatic contacts had to be engaged by the US government in a bid to try and persuade the government in Nicaragua to suspend its apparent subversion (Wenchi 2002 p34). The US government also put economic sanctions on N icaragua and even supported Nicaragua’s neighbors against Nicaraguan aggression. In 1984, Nicaragua held presidential elections during the state of emergency that was meant to curb the Contras insurgents as well as the CIA-orchestrated bombings. The election was won by President Daniel Ortega. This government now leaned more towards the communist world and relied on the Central Committee of the Communist Party for approval of its activities (Kriele 1986 p56). The US government maintained its arms support to the Contras insurgents so as to pressure the Nicaraguan government to revert its relations with the communist bloc (Kriele 1986 p57). It also made regulations that required that any non governmental organization to submit its public statements to the Censorship Bureau before making it public (Chamorro 1988 p23). The continued insurgency by the Contras militants through the US support destabilized the Nicaraguan government and was finally overthrown in 1990 (Chamorro 1988 p 25). The US and the Contras militants forced the Sandinistas to agree to elections which were finally held in 1990 and saw the end of the Sandinistas regime as the election was won by the opposition despite Ortega having used all the resources available and the power he possessed (Chamorro 1988 p27). The US and El Salvador In contrast, the US supported the Salvadoran military government against the insurgents from the left-wing militia during this time that it supported insurgents in fighting Nicaragua (Burgerman 1998 p272). During the Salvadoran Civil War which was between the Salvadoran military government and the Farabundo Martà ­ National Liberation Front (FMLN) which comprised of five left-wing militias; the US provided arms and economic support to the Salvadoran government and also protected the centrist Christian Democrats as well. The centrist Christian Democrats were the target of death squads which existed in Latin America (Francesca 2007 p32). In addition, even within th e security forces in Salvador, divisions were apparent, with one part of the force affiliated to the reformists and the other part affiliated to the right-wing extremists. In an attempt to prevent the occurrence of an economic or political revolution, right-wing extremists had to rely on the death squad. According to Francesca Carter’s administration had to intervene again and again to prevent right-wing coups, while Reagan’s administration had to constantly threaten the right-wing extremists with aid suspension so that they could put an end to their killings and acts of violence. (Francesca 2007 p32) The US was determined to help El Salvador to overcome its bloody fighting since it wanted to ensure that the government did not lean towards the communist regime and that it achieved democracy. Consequently, following many years of involvement in the civil war, it was time now for the US military to intervene and attempt to assist the government contain the insurgence. As a result, the rebels had no choice but to concede defeat. Since the US wanted the Salvadoran government to commit itself to democratic rule, it threatened the Salvadoran government with aid suspension unless it considered democratic transformations which the government accepted. This led to the promulgation of a new constitution, reforms in the armed forces and establishment of the civilian police force. The new constitution guaranteed free and fair political participation and prompted the transformation of FMLN from a militia group to a political party and its members granted amnesty. These transformations enabled the Salvadoran government achieve democratic and peaceful environment. The US and Guatemala Guatemala was and is still characterized by dictatorial rule and repressive military activities. US provided military aid as well as training to Guatemala’s army in the 1960s and 1970s with an aim of helping it transform its army to be able to counter-insurgency forces (Bur german 1998 p256). This was the origin of the death squads in Latin America. Government officials, army leaders and all those who supported the death squads had some close attachments with the US government. The US’s objective was to establish a counterinsurgency base against revolutions which could destabilize the activities of US corporations and US landowners in Guatemala. The US used the CIA and the Guatemalan military to terrorize and eliminate guerillas, labor leaders, professionals and any other person who advocated to for revolution in the system of governance (Brody 1985 p71). The CIA provided training for the army, the police and the death squads and also provided arms support. However, in 1970s, public reports revealed the Guatemalan military torture and killings which propelled human rights activists in the US to protest against the human rights abuse in Guatemala (Burgerman 1998 p267). As a result, President Jimmy Carter halted open military aid to Guatemala in 1 977. Military aid still continued through the CIA which still supported the atrocities committed by the military and the death squad in the President Lucas Garcia which began in 1978 (Burgerman 1998 p263). This regime set out to eliminate popular leaders in Guatemala. The 1980s saw more repression and massacre of the native communities by the Guatemalan military supported by the US through the CIA (Burgerman 1998 p262). Again reports revealed the military violations of human rights in Guatemala which made President Reagan to change his open aid policy to Guatemala and to apply the controversial two-track policy. The Reagan administration supported the military oppression in Guatemala while in public; it made pronouncements which supported human rights and the rule law in Guatemala. The US government still relied on the CIA to liaise with the Guatemalan security forces. The US government did not intervene in the coup and the dictatorial rule of General Efrain Rios Montt which occurre d between 1982 and 1983 (Burgerman 1998 p259). He killed and tortured Indians and those who survived escaped to Mexico. He used deception strategies to establish concentration camps for those who had survived the political genocides that had earlier been carried by the government and used the concentration camps to eliminate them. His activities against the purported insurgents gave President Reagan the advantage to resume military support to Guatemala arguing that Montt’s counterinsurgency on the guerillas was working. CIA and the Guatemalan military activities did not even stop in President Vinicio Cerezo Arevalo’s regime who was elected in the in December, 1985 (Burgerman 1998 p268). The CIA still provided assistance to the military in its repressive activities. Towards the end of Reagan’s administration, the government invented a new method for eliminating the indigenous Guatemalan population. The Guatemalan government supported by the US government sprayed toxic herbicides using the anti-drug helicopters (Burgerman 1998 p269). This caused the death of many people, animals and plants. Those who had fled to remote areas in Guatemala were either killed through the bombings that were carried out in these areas or captured in the pretext of the fight against drugs by applying its anti-drug policy. Those who were captured were tortured and killed. The Bush administration also continued with Reagan’s two-track policy. In 1989, the Bush administration sent humanitarian aid to Guatemala particularly in areas most occupied by the guerilla movements. This was to convince the public that it supported human rights while the National Guard units which had been sent to provide medical services did more interrogation than provision of medical services. An American businessman, Michael Devine, was kidnapped and killed in 1990 for having information on Guatemalan military’s drug-trafficking activities. Although President Bush publicly ann ounced an end to Guatemalan military aid, his administration continued to support the Guatemalan military through the CIA. The activities of the US in Guatemala were driven by the need to protect the United Fruit Company among many other US investments in Guatemala as well as its trade with Guatemala. This company owned about 42% of Guatemala’ land and in addition, the company was exempted from taxes as well as import duties (Burgerman 1998 p266). Most of those who were involved in this company were in the US ruling circles. This is arguably the reason as to why the US supported the authoritarian regime in Guatemala which was renewed by the inauguration of President Reagan in 1981 while on contrary; they fought the authoritarian right-wing regime in Nicaragua. Summary The US relation with Nicaragua was the most conspicuous among Central American countries (Burgerman 1998 p273). The US relations with Guatemala and El Salvador were the exact opposite of its relations with Nicar agua. While the US government supported the Salvadoran and Guatemalan governments against insurgency forces, it openly supported insurgent forces against the Nicaraguan government. Carter’s administration tried to influence the new government which entered power in 1980 through economic assistance for emergency aid and reconstruction. However, Reagan entered power in 1981; he halted all the economic support to Nicaragua since Nicaragua pursued communist ideology. Economic sanctions as well as trade embargo were imposed on Nicaragua in 1985 and even convinced Nicaragua’s neighbors to impose trade embargo on Nicaragua. The US government went to the extent of lobbying the World Bank and the IDB against providing loans to Nicaragua. CIA activities included bombings of the transportation and storage facilities such as pipelines, oil tanks as well as launching helicopter assaults on its mining harbors among other activities. According to Burgerman, the US Congress later on r eversed its ban on provision of military support to the Contras militants in 1986 to provide military assistance approximately US$100 million. (Burgerman 1998 p273). Conclusion The US policymakers were very much concerned about the US’s national security especially after the World War II and therefore set out to expand its power and influence in Latin America. It was necessary for them to overcome global political and economic instability, and these are issues that presented a lot of risks to its prosperity and security. To them, the Soviet Union was the source of the economic and political instabilities that they were faced with. The US intervention in any given country was determined by its national interest and ideology and was based on liberalism, its mission and anti-communism. As a result of the cold war the US was desperately trying to gain power and influences in Latin American. And this was showed to the world by the agreement between the US and Soviet Union about re cognizing Latin America as the US’s sphere of influence. Based on different features and conditions of different Latin American countries, US had made different measures and policies to achieve its goal in different time. Different policies have different outcome and impact, and then lead to different effect on bilateral relation among different countries or with one country at different time, so the cold war to a very big extent shaped and influenced the relation between American and Latin America. Reference Brody, Reed. Contra Terror in Nicaragua. Boston: South End Press, 1985. Print. Burgerman, Susan. Making Peace Perform in War-Transition Countries: El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua. Boston: South End Press, 1998. Print. Chamorro, Cardenal. La Prensa, A Republic of Paper: Freedom House. New York: Rowman Littlefield Publishers Inc, 1988. Print. Francesca, Davis. El Salvador in Pictures. Brookfield, CT: Twenty-First Century Books, 2007. Print. Gilbert, Dennis. Sandinis tas: the party and the revolution. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988. Print. Kriele, Martin. Nicaragua: Das blutende Herz Amerikas. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986. Print. Leogrande, Leonard. Making the Economy Scream: US economic sanctions against Sandinista Nicaragua. Third World Quarterly,17.2(1993). Nigel, Thomas. Central America WAR 1959-1989. London: Osprey publishing Ltd, 1990. Print. Priestland, David. The Red Flag. London: Penguin books press, 2010. Print. Skidmore, Smith. Modern Latin America. London: Oxford university press, 2005. Print. The Catholic Institute for International Relations. Right to Survive: Human Rights in  Nicaragua. London: The Catholic Institute for International Relations, 1987. Print. Wenchi, Zhu, The communism movement in Latin America. Beijing: DangDaiShiJie Press, 2002. Print. 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